OUTLINE
 
by Paul Nervy
Copyright (c) 2006 by Paul Nervy
 
Visit www.paulnervy.com.


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BIOLOGY

Contents
Introduction
Biochemistry
Cellular biology
Individual systems biology
Taxonomy
Genetics
Evolution
Animal behavior
Ecology (see Ecology section)
History of biology
	History of life on earth
	History of the study of life on earth.


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INTRODUCTION

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Biology.
Biology is the scientific study of life and living things.


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Life

Traits of living things include:
Metabolism.
Growth.
Reproduction.
Homeostasis
Evolution.


How many species of life (plants, animals, etc.) on earth?  20 million?
How many species have we discovered thus far?  2 million.
How many species are threatened?
How many species are endangered?


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Sub-areas of biology
Biochemistry.
Cellular biology
Taxonomy
Genetics
Evolution


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BIOCHEMISTRY

Biochemistry.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of life.

What is the difference between organic chemistry and biochemistry?
Organic chemistry studies the chemistry of carbon compounds.  Not all carbon compounds are found in living things.  Biochemistry studies the chemistry of living things.


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Carbohydrates

Simple carbohydrates - sugars 
	Glucose - is the bodies simple sugar
	Fructose - fruit sugar
	Other sugars.  Sucrose, Maltose, Dextrose, Corn sugar, Cane sugar, 

Complex carbohydrates


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Lipids

Fats. Oils.
Healthy fats and oils.  Omega 3 fats.  Olive oils.
Unhealthy fats and oils.

Problems.
Lack of fat.  In terms of percentage of body weight.
Too much fat.  In terms of percentage of body weight.


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Proteins

Protein structure
Protein folding - primary, secondary and tertiary structures

Protein function
How do muscles contract?  
How do muscles grow?

Uses of proteins
Proteins are used to maintain muscle.
Proteins also keep the brain functioning well.

Problems with proteins.
Protein deficiency - kwashikor?
Protein overdose - strain on kidneys

Enzymes
Enzymes are specific types of proteins.

Amino acids.
Essential amino acids are the protein that humans need to live.
List the amino acids that humans need to have a "complete protein"


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Vitamins.

Minerals.


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Nucleic acids
G
A
C
T


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CELLULAR BIOLOGY

Cellular biology.
Cellular biology studies the structure, function and other attributes of cells.

Cell.
Cells are the basic building blocks of life.  All living things are made of cells.  (Viruses and prions are cell-like).


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Types of cells

Plant cells.
Plant cells have rigid cellulose walls. Plant cells have chloroplasts which perform photosynthesis.
		Leaves.
		Wood.
Animal cells.
Animal cells perform respiration.
		Muscle cells.
		Bone cells.
		Nerve cells.


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Parts of the cell.  Cell morphology.  Cell structure.  
	Cell membrane.
	Cytoskeleton
	Cell fluids.  Mostly water.
	Cell organelles.
		Mitochondria.  Converts food and oxygen to stored energy in the form of ATP.
		Golgi bodies
		Endoplasmic reticulum
	Other cell parts
		Lysosomes.
		Endosomes.
		Ribosomes.
		Proteins.
	Cell nucleus.
		DNA
		RNA - mRNA and tRNA


Chemical activity.
Electrical activity.


Cell transport
	passive transport
	active transport

Methods of movement across the cell membrane include:
	Diffusion.
	Osmosis.
	Active transport.


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Cell physiology.

Metabolism.
Forms of cell metabolism include respiration and photosynthesis.

Anabolism 
Catabolism.


Photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts convert sunlight and carbon dioxide to cellulose and oxygen.


Cellular Respiration.

Breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, fats.
Building of carbohydrates, proteins, fats.

Glycolosis.  
ATP
Krebs cycle.  
Electron transport chain.



Fermentation
Oxidation



Aerobic respiration
Glucose plus oxygen yields carbon dioxide.
ATP.  Adenosine triphosphate.
Krebs cycle.

Anaerobic respiration.
Produces lactic acid as a byproduct.

Fermentation.


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Cell reproduction

sexual 
asexual


Mitosis
Mitosis is when the cell splits to form two new cells with the same number of chromosomes as the original.

Meiosis
Meiosis is when the cell splits to form cells with half the number of chromosomes. Meiosis is used to form gametes for sexual reproduction.


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SYSTEMS BIOLOGY

Living things have systems that let them accomplish tasks of life. 

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Nutrition and digestion
	Plants.
	Animals.
		Tube within a tube design.

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Gas respiration
	Plants
	Animals
		Lungs.

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Circulation
	Plants
		Non-vascular plants
		Vascular plants.
	Animals
		Open circulatory system.
		Closed circulatory system.  Blood vessels.  Humans.

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Excretion
	Ammonia.  Fish.
	Uric acids.  Insects.
	Urea.   Mammals.


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Skeleton and muscles
	Exoskeletons.  
		Insects.
	Endoskeleton


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Chemical messengers
	Human endocrine system.


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Nerve systems
	Sense organs.
	Ganglia.
	Brains.


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Reproduction
	Asexual reproduction.
	Sexual reproduction.


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TAXONOMY

(See Biology database)


Taxonomy.
Taxonomy is the classification of living things.  
Classification can be done based on anatomy, physiology, etc.


For each species
Where it is found. What ecosystem it inhabits.
Population levels.  How many are there?
Anatomy (structure)
Physiology (function)
Life cycle.
How it fits into its ecosystem.  
What it eats. 
What eats it.
Pathology (illnesses).
What is its DNA structure?



Producers.  
Autotrophs can make their own food.
	Plants.

Consumers.  
Heterotrophs cannot make their own food
	Animals.
		Herbivores
		Carnivores.



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Viruses.


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Monera.  The Bacteria.
	Eukaryotes.  Single cell, no nucleus.
		Bacteria.
	Prokaryotes.  Single cell, with a nucleus.
		Protozoa.  (amoeba, paramecium)


Anaerobes don't need oxygen.  For example, bacteria that live off of sulpher or other chemicals.
Aerobes need oxygen.


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Protista
	Plant
		Rotifers
	Animal
		Amoeba.  Planaria.  Paramecium

Plankton are small plants and animals in the ocean.  
Plankton plants include diatoms and desmids.


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Plants (Botany)

Lichens.

Algae and seaweed.

Yeasts, molds and smuts.

Fungus.  Mushrooms.

Mosses.

Kelp or seaweed.

Monocots vs. Dicots

Woody vs. non-woody plants.

Deciduous ?

Non-woody plants
Grasses.  Reeds.
Flowers
Ferns
Shrubs

Conifers or gymnosperms.  Seeds but no flowers.
Flowering plants or angiosperms.  Seeds and flowers.

Monocots.   One seed leaf.
Dicots.  Two seed leafs.

Woody plants
trees
	needles.  
	leaves.  

Deciduous.  Leaves and flowers.
Confiers.  Needles and cones.  Evergreens.

Angiosperms.  Seeds in an ovary.  Flowering.
Gymnosperms.  Seeds not in an ovary.  Coniferous.

Hardwoods.  
Softwoods.

Trees identified by their leaves and bark.
Hardwoods
Oak.  
Maple.  
Poplar.  
Walnut.
Cherry.
Hickory.
Ash.  
Elm.  
Birch.  
Cedar.
Larch

Softwoods.  
Pine.  
Fir.

Palm trees.


Seeds.
Seeds in fruit.  Fruit trees.
Seeds in cones.  



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Animals (Zoology).





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GENETICS

Mendelian genetics.  Classical genetics.

Recessive traits.
Dominant traits.

Sex specific traits.  Transmitted via mother or father.

Hybrids.

Mendelian crosses.

Genotype
Phenotype


Chromosomes
How many chromosomes do humans have?
Each cell has two chromosomes. 
Each chromosome has 23 pairs.

Chromosomes are made of DNA.

Sections of DNA are called genes.
Each gene codes for a protein.


Genes.
How many genes do humans have?
Estimates range from
How many of the human genes are actually functional?


XX
XY


Watson and Crick.  
Discovered the double helix structure of DNA.


DNA
RNA
	mRNA
	tRNA


DNA is found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.  DNA allows the replication of cells. DNA allows the transfer of genetic information to the young.

DNA structure.
Structure of DNA is a double helix.


DNA function.


DNA replication.


Applications of genetics.
Human Genome Project
DNA fingerprinting.
Gene therapy.
Cloning of plants, animals and humans.
Gene altered foods.


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EVOLUTION

Random mutation.
Genetic mutation occur at random.

Natural selection.
Random mutations that help ensure survival and reproduction are passed on.

Adaptive radiation.  
Species mutate to fill the niches in the environment.


When the environment changes it caused changes in the plants and animals that inhabit the environment.


Evidence for evolution.
	Fossil record
	Comparative anatomy.
	Genetic evidence.


Speciation.  Hardy-Weinberg law.

Sex and evolution

Altruism and evolution.



Charles Darwin.
Charles Darwin wrote, "The Origin of Species" in the mid-1800's.
He studied birds on the Galapagos islands.

Stephen Jay Gould.
Punctuated equilibrium.  Spurts in evolution due to radical change in environment.



Are humans continuing to evolve?
Evolve physically, without the aid of genetic manipulation?


Random mutation.  Small changes.

Natural selection.  Survival of the fittest.

Over time, accumulation of many small changes leads to a new species.

Members of the same species can interbreed.

Complex species evolve from more simple species.

Everything evolved from single cell organisms.

Radiation of species filling all niches in a new environment.

Traits acquired as a result of the environment's effect on the growth of the individual are not passed on.  




Extinctions.
There have been five major extinction periods in Earth's history.
The Dinosaur extinction was due to a meteor hitting earth, as discovered by Walter Alvarez.


Human caused extinctions
Humans cause extinctions needlessly.  For example, the dodo, the passenger pigeon, and the tasmanian tiger.


Coelocanth
The coelocanth is a primitive fish that was thought to be extinct but was found in the 1930's.


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Lamark mistakenly thought that abilities acquired during ones life would be passed on in genes.

Some people mistakenly thought the earth was only a few thousand years old.

Some people mistakenly thought that humans did not evolve from other forms of life.

Some people mistakenly thought that evolution has a "goal" or "purpose".


No passing of environmentally acquired characteristics to descendants.

No intelligent design.

No "final purpose" toward which life is heading.

Not true that humans are at the "top" of the evolutionary ladder.




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ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

Environments: Aquatic.  Terrestrial.  Arboreal.

Courtship
Mating.
Reproduction.  Birthing.
Caring for young.  Raising young.  Parenting.
Feeding.  Herbivores.  Carnivores.
Drinking
Excretion.  Elimination
Sleep.  Hibernation.
Locomotion or movement.  Migration.  
Nest building.  Home building.  
Territory marking.
Avoidance.  Flight.
Aggression.  Fight.
Cleaning


what is its predators
what is its competitors



Social animal behavior.
Insects
	Bees
	Ants
Fish.  Schools of fish.
Birds.  Flocks of birds.  In flight.  At rest.  Canadian geese.
Mammals.  Herd mammals.
	Wildebeest migrations.
	Zebra.
	Elephants.


Communication
Chemical communication.
Visiual communication.
Sound communication.
Communication: friendly and conflict


Instinctual behaviors.
Learned behaviors.


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Sociobiology.  E.O. Wilson.
Evolutionary ethics.
Evolutionary psychology.
Cognitive science.


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Current issues in biology

Gene screening

Gene therapy

Mapping the human genome

Genetically modified foods

Reproduction
Cloning.  Cloning humans.  Cloning extinct species.
Surrogate mothers
Test tube babies
Designer babies.  Choosing traits of baby.

Transplants.  Mechanical and Animal.

DNA fingerprinting.  Determining parents.  Catching criminals.


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Biology experiments one can do at home.
Amateur naturalist activities to study flora and fauna.

Grow  a fungus 
Grow a mold.
Grow a plant.
Raise fruit flys.
Dissect frog, pig and cat?  High school students don't need to kill to study anatomy.
Mice and rat experiments.
Keep a pet insect, fish, amphibian, reptile, bird, mammal.  Hamster, dog, cat.
Capture fireflies and other bugs.
Learn the names of trees and other plants.
Start an ant fam.
Raise worms.
Get animals to reproduce (not difficult in most cases).
Make a baby.
Make a terrarium.  A little biosphere.  Or was the biosphere a big terrarium?
Make an aquarium.
Take a nature hike.  Learn to identify the plants and animals.
Take a trip to a zoo.  See animals in cages.
Observe plants and animals in the wild, in their natural habitat, undisturbed by humans.  
Grow an organic garden of indigenous plants.

Help prevent cruelty to animals.  Consider becoming a vegetarian.  Don't wear fur.

Experiments on humans and other animals must be done in an ethical manner or not done at all.  Do no harm.


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History of Life on Earth.

Chemical soup.

Amino acids.

Proteins.

First life.  3.5 billion years ago.  Self reproducing.

Unicellular life.

Multicellular life.

Plants.  
First plants in water.  
First plants on land.  Photosynthesis.

Animals.  
First animals in water.  
First animals on land.

Worms.
First worms.

Insects.
First flying insects.


Chordates.

Fish.

Amphibians.

Reptiles.
	Dinosaurs.
	Extinction of dinosaurs.
Birds.

Mammals.

Primates.

Humans



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History of Biology (see history database)


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